AKING  FENCES 
LLS  AND  HEDGES 


^[•[j-gUTTERFIELD 


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9  I 


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A  modern  gate  of  simple  but  good  design. 
Quite  in  character  with  the  house. 


MAKING  FENCES 
WALLS  AND  HEDGES 

By  W.   H.  BUTTERFIELD 


NEW    YORK 

McBRIDE,  NAST  &  COMPANY 
1914 


COPYRIGHT,   1914,  BY 
McBRIDE,  NAST  &  CO. 


Published  May,  1914 


CONTENTS 

PAGE 

INTRODUCTION 7 

FENCES  AND  THEIR  CONSTRUCTION    .      .  9 

GATES 22 

WIRE  FENCES 25 

IRON  FENCES 26 

TREILLAGE 28 

WALLS  (STONE) 31 

WALL  GARDENS 39 

WALLS  OF  Two  OR  MORE  MATERIALS  .    44 

CONCRETE 49 

COST 51 

HEDGES 55 

PLANTING 57 

PRUNING         58 

VARIETIES  .   61 


2091630 


THE    ILLUSTRATIONS 


A  MODERN  GATE  OF  GOOD  DESIGN 

Frontispiece 

PACING 
PAGE 

A  COLONIAL  EXAMPLE  OF  FENCE      .      .    10 


EARLY    19xn   CENTURY  AMERICAN   IRON 
FENCE 26 

A  DRY  STONE  WALL         32 

A  RUBBLE  WALL 38 

STRAIGHTFORWARD  BRICK  WALL  .  .  42 
A  GOOD  CONCRETE  WALL  ....  50 
ARBORVIT.S;  HEDGE .58 


INTRODUCTION 

T  TNDOUBTEDLY  the  first  use  of 
\^}  fences  and  walls  was  for  protection, 
primarily  against  the  mighty  beasts  that 
threatened  our  earliest  ancestors  and  later 
to  secure  the  crops  and  domesticated  ani- 
mals. They  helped  to  stop  the  encroach- 
ing forests  and  jungles,  acted  as  wind 
breaks  to  delicate  plants  or  to  habitations 
and  finally  served  as  boundaries  to  prop- 
erty controlled  by  the  family  or  com- 
munity. As  the  home  became  an  institu- 
tion and  men  gathered  in  favorable  loca- 
tions for  mutual  protection  and  social  in- 
tercourse, the  fence  acted  as  a  screen  01 
barrier  to  the  private  life  about  the  house. 
All  walls  and  fences,  no  matter  what  their 
use,  can  be  made  ornamental  and  their 
proper  use,  however  simple,  but  employed 
with  feeling  and  discernment  for  the  archi- 
tecture of  the  house  and  for  the  nature  of 
the  land,  stamps  the  property  at  once  with 
a  personal  touch. 


8  Introduction 

An  important  use  of  fences  and  walls, 
more  appreciated  in  Europe  than  here, 
is  support  for  vines,  fruit  trees  and  other 
crawling  plants.  In  England  it  is  quite 
necessary  to  ripen  some  fruits,  such  as 
peaches,  against  walls.  The  additional 
sunshine  and  the  heat  radiated  from  the 
wall  are  responsible  for  the  complete  ripen- 
ing of  the  fruit  in  a  cool,  damp  climate. 

As  in  all  other  matters  of  designing, 
that  is  designing  accessories  for  the  house, 
the  same  principles  apply  for  these  fea- 
tures. Appropriateness  of  style  with  the 
house,  relation  of  color  and  proportion, 
surface  texture  and  the  like ;  all  these  are 
important  considerations.  They  are  the 
connecting  links  between  the  purely  nat- 
ural features  of  the  grounds  or  garden 
and  the  conventional  and  artificial  fea- 
tures of  the  building.  They  are  the  shad- 
ings  of  expression  between  the  formality 
of  the  house  and  the  formality  of  the  gar- 
den or  the  informality  of  the  grounds. 


FENCES   AND   THEIR    CONSTRUC- 
TION 

IF  the  line  of  boundary,  whether  a 
fence,  a  wall  or  a  hedge  is  placed  at 
the  border  of  your  property  with  that  of 
some  one  else,  it  is  well  to  consult  the  law 
as  to  what  constitutes  a  "  legal  fence." 
The  various  States  have  their  own  laws. 
They  govern  the  height  and  the  material 
and  proclaim  usually  that  each  party  to 
a  boundary  shall  maintain  his  half,  con- 
sequently you  have  no  control  over  the 
portion  which  does  not  face  your  land. 
If  you  wish  complete  control  of  the  fence 
or  wall,  it  must  be  entirely  on  your  prop- 
erty. The  above  points  might  be  kept  in 
mind  when  determining  the  form  your 
boundary  line  is  to  take. 

Fences  are  usually  of  wood,  iron,  wire 
or  their  combinations.  The  commonest 
form  of  fence,  pure  and  simple,  is  of  wood. 
This  is  very  natural  as  wood  is  our  easiest 


io     Fences,  Walls  and  Hedges 

worked  material  and  comes  in  convenient 
shapes  and  sizes.  Early  forms  of  wood 
fences  are  the  snake,  split  rail  and  stump. 
Later  came  the  dressed  rail  and  the  board 
and  picket  fence  and  such  elaborate  types 
as  are  seen  on  large  formal  places,  where 
lattice  work,  balustraded  fences,  hoop 
fences  and  many  with  combinations  of  the 
above,  occur. 

The  best  we  can  say  about  the  snake 
fence  is  that  it  is  picturesque,  which  is 
another  horribly  misused  word.  Yet  when 
used  to  border  an  old  pasture  or  encircle 
a  wood  lot,  the  snake  fence  fits  into  its  sur- 
roundings so  well  that  we  are  apt  to  for- 
give it  its  faults,  for  it  surely  has  some. 
It  is  not  a  permanent  type  and  as  it  is 
only  used  for  economy  and  speed  of  con- 
struction it  can  be  dismissed  from  the  re- 
mainder of  these  pages. 

The  more  usual  forms  of  wood  fences 
are  board  and  picket.  They  are  simple 
in  construction,  the  members  consisting 
of  boards  or  pickets  secured  to  horizontal 
members  which  are  in  turn  supported  by 
uprights  in  the  ground.  The  most  im- 
portant member  is  the  upright.  The 


Fences  and  Construction       li 

others  are  easier  to  renew  and  cheaper  to 
procure,  therefore  care  is  taken  to  use 
wood  that  is  least  affected  by  contact  with 
earth.  Of  the  common  woods  for  this  pur- 
pose, locust  and  chestnut  are  the  best. 
The  more  seasoned  the  wood  is  the  better 
and  to  insure  longer  life  the  ends  in  the 
ground  can  be  treated,  in  fact  all  wood 
coming  in  contact  with  the  earth  should 
be  treated  for  preservation.  Charring 
is  one  way.  The  end  is  held  over  a  fire 
until  it  is  well  blackened  —  both  the  tip 
and  the  sides  to  a  point  above  grade. 
Other  methods  of  preservation  are  peeling 
and  seasoning  and  painting. 

Surface  brush  painting,  while  not  dur- 
able, is  often  resorted  to  and  consists  in 
applying  white-wash,  petroleum,  tar  cre- 
sote  and  coal  tar  creosote.  Creosote  is 
the  best  when  put  on  hot  in  two  or  more 
coats.  Paint  the  tops  as  well  as  the  butts. 
As  the  brush  work  does  not  enter  far  into 
the  wood,  better  results  are  obtained 
by  dipping  the  ends  into  the  liquid,  this 
however  takes  more  material  but  less  la- 
bor. 

Impregnate  with  creosote  by  heating  the 


12     Fences,  Walls  and  Hedges 

wood  and  allowing  it  to  cool  in  the  mix- 
ture. Have  the  temperature  of  the  wood 
over  200°  F.  so  that  the  air  and  water 
will  be  expanded  and  forced  out  and  when 
cooling  begins,  the  vacuum  which  occurs 
sucks  in  the  creosote. 

Whatever  method  is  employed,  carry 
the  treatment  above  the  ground  line  as 
at  this  point  the  surface  is  exposed  to 
more  frequent  conditions  of  dryness  and 
dampness.  It  is  due  to  these  constant 
changes  that  wet-rot  sets  in.  Notice  any 
wooden  post  that  is  decaying  and  you  will 
see  just  at  the  ground  line  a  deeper  area 
of  corrosion.  Grade  the  earth  away  from 
the  post.  Water  should  not  be  allowed  to 
stand  or  collect  on  or  near  any  woodwork, 
therefore  it  is  well  to  bevel  the  tops  of  the 
posts  and  rails  so  that  rain  will  quickly 
run  off.  Posts  of  old  fences  sometimes 
were  set  on  large  stones  level  with  the 
ground,  and  secured  to  them  by  iron  dow- 
els. 

The  posts  are  best  when  set  three  feet 
in  the  ground  and  eight  or  ten  feet  apart. 
The  quickest,  cheapest  form  is  to  nail  the 
rails  to  the  posts  and  the  pickets  or  boards 


Fences  and  Construction       13 

to  the  rails.  Of  course  galvanized  nails 
should  be  used.  A  better  way  is  to  let 
the  rails  into  the  posts,  either  at  the  sides 
or  through  the  center  and  bolt  them,  while 
a  still  better  way  is  to  continue  by  cutting 
out  holes  in  the  rails  and  passing  the  ends 
of  the  pickets  through  them.  Then  when 
all  are  nailed  you  have  a  stouter  fence. 
However,  in  this  case  it  is  not  quite  as 
easy  to  renew  a  broken  picket  or  a  split 
rail.  For  a  cheap  fence  four  by  four  inch 
posts,  two  by  four  rails  and  pickets  seven- 
eighths  of  an  inch  square  two  inches  apart 
may  be  used  but  it  is  much  better  to  have 
the  posts  at  least  six  by  six  and  the  pickets 
one  inch  or  one  and  one-eighth  inches 
square.  At  times  when  a  lightness  and 
grace  of  design  is  desired  the  smaller  size 
pickets  are  used. 

An  interesting  fence  is  often  made  by 
using  boards  of  random  widths  placed  ver- 
tically to  the  rails.  These  boards  vary 
from  three  to  six  inches  in  width  and  often 
the  tops  are  cut  in  uneven  lines  or  follow 
a  curve  from  post  to  post  as  shown  in 
Fig.  1. 

There  is  a  form  of  tight  board  fence 


that  is  occasionally  used  and  one  that  does 
not  allow  the  joints  between  the  boards  to 


5 


Uneven  boards  of  random  widths  from  three  to 
six  inches,  if  the  tops  are  cut  in  uneven  lines, 
make  an  attractive  fence 

open  up  (see  Fig.  2).  The  boards,  while 
set  vertically,  are  lapped  in  the  same  way 
as  siding  or  clap  boards  on  the  walls  of  a 


Boards  less  than  one  inch  in  thickness, 
fastened  vertically  to  the  rails  and 
lapped  as  are  clapboards,  make  a 
satisfactory  tight  fence 

house  and  they  are  nailed  where  they  lap 
so  that  each  board  is  held  firmly  to  the 


Fences  and  Construction       lj> 

next  and  to  the  rail.  Use  for  these, 
boards  not  less  than  one  inch  in  thickness. 
If  you  have  a  broad  expanse  that  you 
do  not  care  to  have  broken  by  the  line  of 
a  fence,  a  sunken  fence  can  be  used  which 
is  merely  an  ordinary  fence  set  in  a  hollow. 
This  depression  or  little  valley  should  have 
sides  steep  enough  to  shut  off  a  view  of 
the  fence,  but  at  the  same  time  not  so  steep 
but  verdure  will  grow.  (See  Fig.  3.) 


A  fence  set  in  a  hollow  is  concealed  where  an  un- 
broken expanse  is  desirable 

It  is  evident  that  unless  this  form  is  used 
where  this  is  good  natural  drainage  this 
valley  would  become  at  times  a  river  or 
possibly  a  swamp. 

The  fences  spoken  of  above  are  simple 
both  in  design  and  in  construction  yet  it  is 
surprising  what  pleasing  and  charming  ef- 
fects result  from  a  careful  study  of  the 
relation  of  one  member  to  another,  that 
is  to  say,  their  proportion.  The  spacing 
of  the  pickets  or  boards  has  also  much  to 


i6 

do  with  the  final  appearance.  In  general 
where  slender  members  are  used  (as  pick- 
ets) the  distance  between  or  the  void 
should  be  somewhat  larger  than  the  width 
of  the  vertical  piece,  while  in  the  case  of 
boards,  the  void,  if  made  less  than  the 
board  itself,  gives  a  solidity  appropriate 
to  this  particular  type. 

You  will  find  occasionally  in  some  coun- 
try districts  a  peculiar  type  of  fence,  or 
rather  a  giant  hedge,  which  has  been 
formed  by  cutting  and  bending  young 
trees.  This  bending  is  done  near  the 
ground  and  trees  'have  been  selected  or 
planted  to  form  the  line  desired  for  the 
boundary.  As  the  trees  grow  the  main 
trunks  a  few  feet  above  ground  are  hori- 
zontal and  the  branches  grow  up  vertically 
from  them  while  vines  and  bushes  use  the 
trees  thus  deformed  for  supports,  the 
whole  making  an  almost  impenetrable 
mass  and  an  effective  barrier.  The  in- 
quisitive rambler  has  marveled  when  com- 
ing across  a  pasture  or  field  to  see,  stand- 
ing out  alone  and  grotesquely  what  might 
have  been  a  noble  and  upright  member  of 
the  forest,  but  now  crippled  and  crushed, 


Fences  and  Construction       17 

an  object  of  derision  and  humorous 
wonderment.  Long  ago  that  tree,  now  a 
pathetic  sight,  was  part  of  a  "  live  fence  " 
in  which  many  of  his  brothers  were  mal- 
treated in  the  same  fashion.  The  rest  be- 
ing cleared  away,  as  the  land  was  used  for 
other  purposes,  he,  by  some  chance  or 
whim,  was  left  a  mournful  relict  of  a  long 
forgotten  boundary. 

When  we  come  to  fences  of  a  more 
decorative  character  an  almost  unlimited 
number  of  forms  are  encountered.  The 
first  step  beyond  the  common  picket  and 
board  fence  is  one  where  pickets  are  still 
used  but  the  post  is  treated  more  elab- 
orately ;  usually  with  architectural  mem- 
bers. That  is  it  has  a  base,  shaft  and  cap. 
If  classical  in  spirit,  the  accepted  classical 
moldings  are  used  to  form  these  members. 
The  shaft  may  have  plain  sides  or  panels ; 
the  top  often  terminates  in  a  finial  such 
as  a  vase,  urn,  ball  or  pineapple. 

Next  the  rails  are  developed  by  having 
moldings  and  the  pickets  become  square 
balusters  or  are  even  turned  on  a  lathe. 
The  whole  fence  then  becomes  purely  ar- 
chitectural and  is  treated  in  the  same  way, 


1 8     Fences,  Walls  and  Hedges 

both  as  to  design  and  construction  as  any 
other  architectural  feature.  As  this  type 
is  formal  to  the  last  degree,  it  is  better 
used  in  close  proximity  to  the  house,  or 
if  in  the  garden  it  should  have  some  rela- 
tion to  the  main  features,  such  as  casinos, 
pergolas,  retaining  walls  and  the  like. 

Some  of  the  best  modern  English  and 
German  wood  fences  are  as  good  as  any 
done  before  them.  Whether  acting  as 
fences  in  the  usual  form  or  as  screens,  ar- 
bors or  backgrounds  for  planting,  they 
are  most  appropriate  for  their  setting  and 
never  seem  out  of  place  or  style.  (Figs. 
4  and  5.) 

The  more  complicated  the  fence  is  in 
design,  the  more  complicated  it  is  in  con- 
struction. This  is  self  evident.  The 
more  parts,  the  more  care  necessary  in  con- 
necting them  and  the  larger  the  parts,  the 
more  members  to  be  assembled. 

When  a  post  becomes  over  five  inches 
square  and  has  panels  and  molding  it 
is  built  up  of  different  pieces,  which 
should  be,  if  possible,  tongued  and 
grooved  into  one  another  and  have  the 
joints  set  in  white  lead.  Hard  wood 


Fences  and  Construction       19 


Lattice  fences  are  particularly  effective  as  a  back- 
ground for  planting 


,  ii  n_n  jrjiJL 


.14. 


Such  English  and  German  designs  of  wood  fences 
as  this  are  particularly  effective 


The  fence  post  over  five  inches 
square  needs  to  be  carefully  con- 
structed of  different  pieces.  This 
plan  shows  good  construction 


Fences  and  Construction      21 

splines  are  an  additional  security  at  mi- 
tres to  keep  them  from  opening  up.  Rails 
if  over  4x4  inches  should  also  be  built 
up.  Clear  white  pine  is  by  all  odds,  the 
best  wood  for  exterior  work  not  in  contact 
with  the  ground.  But  it  is  expensive. 
Cypress  and  cedar  are  used  and  in  the 
West,  redwood.  (Fig.  6.) 

Fences    of   any    height    should   be   well 
braced.     To  brace  lengthwise  is  compara- 


A  Method 
of  t>racmj 


tively  simple  but  get  a  brace  at  right 
angles  to  the  fence  is  not  usually  possible 
and  it  is  apt  to  look  ugly  and  to  take  up 
space  that  interferes  with  other  features. 
(Fig.  7.)  It  is  therefore  quite  necessary 
to  thoroughly  secure  the  uprights  in  the 
ground.  Bracing  is  important  near  gate- 


22     Fences,  Walls  and  Hedges 

ways  as  at  these  places  a  greater  strain  is 
borne. 

GATES 

The  gates  themselves  should  be  espe- 
cially strong  and  the  construction  here  is 
more  elaborate,  as  frequently  the  gate  is 
the  principal  feature  of  the  whole.  It  is 
the  point  of  interest  of  the  general  design. 
The  braces  are  to  be  worked  in  as  part 
of  the  composition.  They  should  not  look 
like  independent  members,  but  should  tie 
in  with  the  general  arrangement.  Equal 
size  rectangular  parts  intersecting  may  be 
halved  together,  although  care  must  be 
taken  not  to  weaken  a  structural  part. 
Corner  gates  are  bad  for  they  put  an  un- 
even strain  on  the  fence. 

Remember  that  a  gate  acts  as  a  lever 
and  exerts  a  strain  on  its  support  pro- 
portionate to  its  length.  In  wide  gates 
various  devices  are  resorted  to  to  establish 
an  equilibrium  so  that  all  the  weight  is  not 
borne  by  the  lower  hinge  or  fastening. 
Braces  and  balances  serve  for  this  purpose. 
The  braced  gate  is  shown  in  Fig.  8,  the 
brace  being  kept  low  enough  not  to  mar 


Fences  and  Construction      23 

the  appearance  or  to  produce  a  clumsy  ef- 
fect. The  balanced  gate  is  structurally 
better  for  it  can  be  made  to  be  absolutely 
counter-balanced  and  divide  the  load 
equally.  The  weight  is  generally  a  box 


A  simple  type  of  braced  gate  easily  constructed 

filled  with  stone  and  the  member  holding 
it  may  be  a  section  of  a  tree  trunk  which 
is  pivoted  on  the  top  of  the  post  to  which 
the  gate  is  hinged.  (See  Fig.  9.) 

If  the  braced  and  balanced  gates  are  not 
appropriate  for  your  fence,  ones  with  con- 
cave tops  may  be  substituted  as  they  work 


24     Fences,  Walls  and  Hedges 


A  box  filled  with  stones  is  a  common  means   of 
balancing  the  weight  of  a  wide  gate 

on  the  same  principle  as  those  that  are 
braced.      (See  Fig.  10.) 


A  concave  top  is  a  substitute  for  bracing  that  is 
attractive  in  appearance 

Gate  hinges  may  be  cast  or  wrought  iron 
strap  hinges  for  the  informal  gates  and 


Fences  and  Construction       2$ 

regular  pin  butts  for  elaborate  ones.  A 
latch  should  be  provided  either  of  wood, 
to  be  old  fashioned,  or  of  iron.  Turn- 
stiles are  quaint  adjuncts  to  fences  in  old 
time  gardens.  They  are  seen  more  in 
England  than  here  but  are  often  useful  in 
connection  with  a  large  gateway  for  vehi- 
cles. 

WIRE    FENCES 

I  dare  say  for  general  utility  and  length 
of  service  the  wire  fence  with  iron  posts 
gives  the  best  results  for  the  amount  of 
money  expended.  They  are  quickly 
erected  and  need  but  a  few  repairs.  How- 
ever, the  possibilities,  artistically,  are 
limited.  The  posts  are  set  in  iron  anchors 
which  require  little  digging  and  spiral 
wires,  with  a  flat  cross  section,  are  run  be- 
tween. The  greatest  objection  to  this 
fence  is  that  it  is  easily  climbed  and  con- 
sequently, not  only  allows  the  ingress  of 
intruders,  but  causes  the  wires  to  be  broken 
or  pulled  out  from  the  fastenings  at  the 
post,  which  consist  of  wire  elliptical  rings 
passing  around  the  horizontal  wire  and 
through  a  hole  in  the  flange  of  the  post, 


26     Fences,  Walls  and  Hedges 

whose  cross  section  is  in  the  form  of  a 
T.  To  avoid  climbing  barb  wire  and  high 
non-climbing  mesh  are  used. 

Another  serviceable  form  of  wire  fence, 
but  one  utterly  devoid  of  decorative  qual- 
ities, is  composed  of  concrete  posts  and 
horizontal  wires.  The  posts  are  molded 
with  holes  for  the  wires  to  pass  through 
and  are  reenforced  with  steel  rods.  Rail- 
roads use  this  extensively  along  their  right- 
of-ways.  Instead  of  the  holes  in  the  posts, 
staples  may  be  set  in  the  concrete  before 
it  sets  and  the  wires  passed  through  these. 
If  a  wire  mesh  is  used  instead  of  horizon- 
tal wires  some  interest  may  be  effected  by 
the  weaving  of  the  wire  or  by  the  propor- 
tioning of  the  meshes. 

The  best  wire  for  a  fence  is  one  that  is 
of  hard  steel  but  not  of  spring  steel  grade. 
It  should  be  able  to  stand  considerable 
abuse  and  hard  wear  yet  at  the  same  time 
be  easily  spliced.  Top  and  bottom  wires 
to  hold  fabric  between  are  best  of  carbon 
steel. 

IRON    FENCES 

The  all  iron  fence,  whether  cast  or 
wrought  is  an  expensive  proposition  com- 


Fences  and  Construction      27 

pared  with  the  fences  previously  discussed. 
Iron  fences  are  usually  elaborate  and  re- 
quire special  molds  and  castings  if  an 
original  design  is  used,  but  many  fairly 
good  designs  are  supplied  from  stock  by 
the  manufacturers  and  these,  of  course, 
are  cheaper  than  the  ones  specially  pre- 
pared. Iron  in  connection  with  brick  or 
stone  is  effective.  The  color  of  wrought 
or  cast  iron  with  masonry  is  always  pleas- 
ing. Masonry  piers  with  iron  between  is 
a  common  form.  Take  care,  however, 
that  if  the  design  of  the  iron  work  is  formal 
the  pier  should  be  formal  and  vice  versa. 
Wrought  iron  has  a  better  texture  and 
color  than  cast  iron  but  costs  more. 

In  general  iron  and  wire  fences  should 
have  their  posts  so  secured  that  they  may 
not  be  lifted  from  the  ground  by  frost. 
If  the  iron  is  set  in  concrete  bases  it  is 
liable  to  rust  quicker.  Use  cast  iron 
anchor  bases  and  select  a  fence  that  can 
be  put  together  by  ordinary  tools. 

The  best  manufacturers'  catalogues 
give  excellent  information  about  iron  and 
wire  fences  and  show  diagrams  for  their 
setting  and  assembling. 


28     Fences,  Walls  and  Hedges 


TREILLAGE 

Let  us  say  a  few  words  for  trellis-work 
inasmuch  as  it  is  a  first  cousin  to  the  fence. 
I  do  not  speak  of  the  ordinary  lattice 
which  clings  to  walls,  rears  itself  between 
porch  columns  or  spreads  over  rear  door- 
ways and  out  buildings.  Rather  do  I 
mean  the  putting  together  of  posts,  rails 
and  other  delicate  wood  members,  includ- 
ing the  above  lattice,  to  form  a  distinct 
architectural  design  which  may  serve  for 
various  purposes  such  as  statue  niches, 
summer  houses,  arbors  or  supports  to 
pergolas  and  screens. 

One  of  the  first  requisites  in  the  design- 
ing is  that  the  framework  while  being 
strong  must,  at  the  same  time,  carry  out 
gracefully  the  lines  of  the  structure. 
Angles  may  be  strengthened  by  iron 
stays.  If  not  securely  fastened  heavier 
wood  must  be  used  which  would  probably 
injure  the  effect  of  the  design.  The  frame 
forms  the  organic  lines  of  the  pattern. 
For  the  filling  in  do  not  have  too  many 
curved  lines  but  depend  upon  these  to  ac- 
centuate a  point  of  interest,  such  as  an 


Fences  and  Construction       29 

oval  in  the  center  of  a  square  or  rectan- 
gular space.  (See  Fig.  11.)  The  pieces 
as  they  meet,  for  strength's  sake  are  not 
halved  together  but  are  let  over  one  an- 
other. The  better  effect  is  when  from 
the  side  usually  viewed  the  vertical 


A  treillage  fence  is  graceful,  but  its  framework 
must  be  strong  and  few  curves  used 

members  are  seen  to  pass  over  the 
horizontal  ones.  Secure  these  by  nails 
or  wooden  pins.  For  trellis  work  the 
English  use  oak,  teak  and  other  hard 
woods,  but  we  here,  shall  probably  be 
obliged  to  employ  the  same  woods  as  for 
our  fences. 


30     Fences,  Walls  and  Hedges 

Since  "  treillage  "  requires  the  best  of 
carpenter  work  it  would  be  wise  to  confide 
the  designing  to  one  accustomed  to  using 
architectural  forms  and  the  making  to  one 
who  is  used  to  carrying  them  out. 


II 

WALLS 

STONE    WALLS 

THE  original  wall  was  of  stones 
gathered  from  the  surrounding  land 
and  piled  unevenly  to  form  a  barrier. 
This  is  a  dry  wall  and  even  to-day  there 
are  more  dry  stone  walls  than  any  other 
kind. 

A  dry  wall  is  the  easiest  of  the  masonry 
walls  to  build.  Large  flat  stones  are 
selected  for  the  base  and  are  laid  somewhat 
below  grade.  On  these  come  the  regular 
wall  stones.  Select  stones  that  have  a 
natural  bearing  surface,  for  of  course  the 
more  rounded  the  stones  are,  the  more 
liable  they  are  to  roll  down  or  become 
dislodged.  The  quickest  wall  to  build  is 
where  no  special  regard  is  given  to  regu- 
larity or  to  height;  consequently  great 
care  is  unnecessary  in  choosing  the  stones 

or  fitting  them  to  their  places.     A  better 
31 


32     Fences,  Walls  and  Hedges 

wall  is  obtained  when  a  fairly  true  surface 
is  kept  and  the  stones  fitted  to  their  places 
even  if  it  is  necessary  to  break  some  pieces 
or  trim  them  with  a  stone  hammer.  If 
the  stones  come  in  lengths  greater  than 
their  depths,  or  are  fairly  rectangular  a 
more  pleasing  appearance  is  the  result. 
This  is  true  of  any  stone  wall  for  the  im- 
pression is  one  of  permanency,  while 
rounded  stones,  especially  cobbles,  give  the 
feeling  that  they  may  at  any  moment  roll 
from  their  places  and  in  truth  they  would 
in  many  cases,  if  it  were  not  for  mortar 
holding  them  together.  The  spaces  be- 
tween the  large  stones  are  filled  with 
smaller  ones,  but  it  is  best  to  keep  those 
more  for  the  interior  of  the  wall  than  for 
the  outer  faces.  It  is  not  well  to  make  a 
dry  wall  less  than  two  feet  in  thickness. 
This  at  the  top,  for  a  small  batter  or  in- 
clination toward  the  center  helps  the  stabil- 
ity. This  thickness  is  for  a  wall  of  3  ft. 
or  less  in  height.  For  every  6  in.  addi- 
tional height  the  width  should  be  increased 
4  in.  All  stones  of  a  strata  character 
should  by  all  means  be  laid  on  their  nat- 
ural beds.  They  are  not  then  so  liable  to 


A  dry  stone  wall  showing  the  stones  laid  on 
their  natural  bed  and  having  their  horizontal 
dimensions  much  in  excess  of  their  vertical  di- 
mensions; a  good  characteristic. 


Walls  33 

scale.  The  famous,  or  infamous  brown 
stone  fronts  of  New  York  are  good  ex- 
amples of  this  for  the  stone  was  set  op- 
posite to  its  natural  bed  in  the  quarry  and 
the  consequence  is  that  all  over  town  you 
will  see  the  brown  stone  scaling  away. 
The  reason  that  the  masons  laid  them  as 
they  did  was  to  secure  a  surface  that 
would  take  a  smoother  finish. 

The  top  of  a  dry  wall  may  be  finished 
level,  with  the  stones  as  they  come  or  have 
a  coping.  The  coping  can  be  of  broad 
flat  stones  laid  dry  covering  the  entire 
width  of  the  top  or  they  may  be  set  in 
cement  mortar,  the  interstices  being  well 
slushed  up  with  the  mortar. 

The  neatest  example  of  a  dry  stone  wall 
to  the  author's  knowledge  borders  the  line 
of  the  new  Catskill  aqueduct  not  far  from 
New  York  City.  The  stones  have  been 
split  in  long  lengths  and  have  been  care- 
fully fitted.  The  faces  are  true  with  no 
projecting'  stones  and  the  spaces  between 
the  larger  stones  are  filled  with  smaller 
ones,  which  almost  exactly  fit  their  posi- 
tion. The  coping  is  of  rough  cut  stone 
in  long  slabs  covering  the  entire  width  and 


34     Fences,  Walls  and  Hedges 

these  slabs  are  held  together  by  cement 
mortar. 

The  life  of  any  stone  wall  or  pier  is  in- 
creased if  it  is  carried  below  the  frost  line 
which  should  be  from  3  to  4  feet.  But 
this  is  too  expensive  in  proportion  to  the 
cost  of  a  dry  wall.  In  a  wall  of  cut  stone 
laid  up  in  mortar  it  is  more  necessary  as 
any  settlement  or  heaving  will  show  cracks 
in  a  wall  of  this  character. 

The  texture  of  the  rough,  natural  sur- 
faces of  the  stones  in  a  dry  wall  gives  it 
its  principal  charm.  Stones  selected  with 
a  covering  of  moss,  stones  having  varia- 
tions of  color  and  occasionally  a  huge  rock 
taking  up  the  space  of  several  smaller 
ones,  add  to  the  wall's  interest.  Place 
these  large  rocks  at  the  bottom.  They 
give  stability. 

The  final  effect  of  a  stone  wall  depends 
much  upon  the  arrangement  of  the  stones ; 
the  proportion  of  large  to  small  ones.  If 
the  stones  are  of  all  the  same  or  nearly 
the  same  size  the  result  is  sure  to  be  mo- 
notonous. Have  plenty  of  long  stones. 
Get  a  vertical  feeling  occasionally  by  put- 
ting in  a  few  stones  that  are  considerably 


Walls  35 

higher  than  they  are  wide.  See  that  the 
stones  are  carefully  fitted  to  their  posi- 
tion. 

A  wall  set  in  cement  mortar  is  naturally 
more  permanent.  Each  stone  is  then  held 
firmly  to  its  neighbor  and  the  whole  be- 
comes almost  a  monolith.  Especially  is 
this  true  when  all  crevices  are  well  filled  up 
with  the  mortar.  There  are  several  ways 
in  which  a  wall  of  this  kind  may  be  laid  up. 
The  joints  between  the  stones  are  often 
filled  with  the  mortar  flush  to  the  outer 
surfaces  of  the  stones.  By  this  method 
truer  and  more  even  faces  are  secured. 
Sometimes  the  joints  are  raked  out. 
That  is  the  mortar  does  not  come  out  to 
the  surface  but  stops  anywhere  from  one 
half  to  two  inches  back.  If  it  is  carried 
in  deep  enough  the  effect  of  a  dry  wall  is 
the  result.  In  a  very  thick  wall,  say  three 
feet  or  over,  mortar  is  only  necessary  in 
the  center  and  this  also  has  the  appearance 
of  a  dry  wall.  The  method  of  laying  is 
determined  largely  upon  the  nature  of  the 
stones  and  kind  of  surface  wished  for.  If 
the  stones  have  rounding  faces,  it  is  a  sav- 
ing in  mortar  not  to  make  a  flush  finish  for 


36     Fences,  Walls  and  Hedges 

as  some  stones  are  bound  to  project  be- 
yond others  it  would  be  necessary  to  bring 
the  mortar  to  the  outer  faces  of  these. 
But  this  would  probably  cover  up  many 
of  the  stones  that  did  not  project.  How- 
ever some  charming  walls  have  been  built 
where  about  50%  of  the  surface  showed 
stone  and  the  other  half  was  cement.  The 
appearance  here  and  there  of  a  stone  con- 
trasting with  the  cement  makes  an  interest- 
ing color  effect. 

This  brings  us  to  the  question  of  color, 
an  extremely  important  consideration  in 
any  wall.  Most  field  stones  are  gray  in 
color  which  if  assembled  together  without 
some  relief  would  prove  uninteresting. 
To  avoid  this,  search  for  stones  that  are 
either  darker  or  lighter  than  the  general 
run  and  by  placing  them  judiciously  the 
needed  sparkle  and  contrast  is  acquired. 
If  the  joints  are  not  so  deep  but  that  the 
mortar  shows,  then  another  chance  for 
contrast  is  obtained.  If  the  mortar 
should  happen  to  be,  when  dry,  the  same 
or  nearly  the  same  color  as  the  stone  it 
may  be  lightened  by  adding  a  small  per- 
centage of  lime  putty,  not  over  10%,  or 


Walls  37 

a  white  cement  can  be  substituted  for  the 
gray.  In  any  case  use  a  Portland  cement. 
To  produce  a  black  or  dark  gray  joint, 
mix  lamp  black  with  the  mortar.  Ex- 
perimenting with  a  small  amount  will  give 
you  the  proportion.  A  beautiful  wall, 
very  light  in  color,  has  been  obtained  by 
using  enough  mortar  to  make  a  flush  or 
very  nearly  flush  wall  and  then  washing 
the  entire  surface  with  a  rather  thin  mix- 
ture of  white  cement  and  sand.  To  get 
a  color  even  lighter,  white  sand  is  used  in- 
stead of  ordinary  sand. 

In  masonry  terminology,  the  walls  de- 
scribed above  would  be  called  rubble. 
(See  Fig.  12.)  Rubble  is  the  simplest  and 
least  formal  type ;  the  stones  are  irregular 
in  all  dimensions  and  are  laid  up  as  they 
come  with  as  little  breaking  and  splitting 
as  possible.  If  the  stones  are  laid  in 
courses  the  wall  is  designated  as  "  coursed 
rubble."  After  rubble  comes  random 
ashlar.  Technically  an  ashlar  is  a  veneer 
of  stone  that  is  used  to  cover  and  give  fin- 
ish to  a  rougher  wall  behind.  This  back- 
ing wall  may  be  of  rubble  or  of  brick.  A 
"  broken  ashlar  "  is  where  the  stones,  while 


38     Fences,  Walls  and  Hedges 

having  the  exposed  faces  dressed  and 
trued,  are  of  unequal  sizes,  though  rec- 
tangular in  shape.  (See  Fig.  12.) 
"  Coursed  ashlar  "  is  where  any  course  is 
of  the  same  height  for  its  entire  length. 

A  wall  of  this  kind  is  a  big  step  toward 
the  formal.     It  is  much  more  expensive  to 


AsM 


er 


Two     methods     of     laying 
stone  for  fences 


build  over  the  rubble  wall  and  takes  more 
skill  in  the  building. 

A  long  wall  may  not  only  be 
strengthened  but  interest  added  thereto  if 
piers  or  buttresses  are  employed.  No 
specific  directions  can  be  given  for  the 


Walls  39 

shape,  size  or  spacing  of  these  features  for 
they  depend  entirely  upon  the  use  of  the 
wall,  its  position,  height,  etc.  The  general 
principles  of  proportion  apply  as  in  all 
other  matters  of  design. 

The  height  of  formality  in  a  stone  wall 
is  where  the  stone  is  cut  and  laid  exactly 
as  for  the  walls  of  a  building.  That  is 
to  say,  they  may  be  dressed  with  any  of 
the  surfaces  familiar  to  the  stone  mason; 
the  joints  may  be  narrow  or  rusticated; 
architectural  forms  may  be  used  and  the 
specifications  for  such  walls  would  read 
the  same  as  for  the  walls  of  any  stone 
building. 

WALL    GARDENS 

An  unusual  variety  of  wall  is  one  where 
planting  is  done  directly  upon  the  wall 
itself.  This  is  called  a  Wall  Garden. 

The  wall  in  this  case  is  more  or  less 
informal  and  is  laid  up  dry  and  the  crevices 
are  packed  with  soil  for  the  nourishment 
of  the  plants.  The  stones  in  the  wall  are 
so  set  that  they  will  drain  off  all  super- 
fluous water.  The  best  wall  for  this  pur- 
pose is  a  retaining  wall,  not  over  five  feet 


40     Fences,  Walls  and  Hedges 

in  height.  A  retaining  wall  having  solid 
earth  on  one  side  affords  better  advan- 
tages for  the  growing  of  plants  than  one 
where  each  side  is  a  "  garden,"  for  natu- 
rally in  the  latter  case,  the  storage  space 
for  plant  food  is  limited.  Better  results 
are  obtained  when  the  face  of  the  wall 
slopes  back  from  the  perpendicular. 

Further  details  of  a  Wall  Garden  and 
directions  for  planting,  etc.,  may  be  found 
in  another  book  of  this  series  entitled 
"Making  a  Rock  Garden"  by  H.  S. 
Adams. 

BRICK    WALLS 

Perhaps  there  is  no  building  material 
better  than  good,  hard  burned  bricks. 
They  have  had  the  test  of  time  such  as  no 
other  material  made  by  man  has  had. 
They  have  wonderful  variation  of  color, 
a  pleasing  range  of  surface  textures  and 
when  laid  up  in  cement  mortar  a  perma- 
nency that  not  even  stone  can  exceed. 
Coming  in  regular  sizes,  a  wall  of  them 
may  be  of  any  thickness  provided  the  di- 
mension is  a  multiple  of  four,  the  depth  in 
inches  of  the  average  brick. 


Walls  41 

The  thinnest  possible  wall  of  brick  is 
four  inches,  one  brick  deep.  (See  Fig. 
13.)  This,  if  built  straight,  would  have 
little  strength  laterally  and  therefore  a 
four  inch  wall  is  run  zig-zag  like  a  snake 
fence  or  broken  up  into  short  runs  by 
other  methods.  If  each  run  is  not  too 
long  and  the  height  is  low,  say  not  over 
five  feet,  a  fairly  strong  wall  is  construct- 
ed. The  serpentine  fence  at  the  Uni- 


The  zigzag  brick  wall  can  be  built  one  brick  deep. 
Less  space  is  used  if  piers  are  placed  at  inter- 
vals 


versity  of  Virginia,  designed  by  Thomas 
Jefferson,  is  an  interesting  example. 
This  zig-zagging  however  takes  up  ground 
space  so  strength  may  be  secured  by  us- 
ing piers  at  6  to  10  foot  intervals.  If 
carried  below  the  frost  line  greater  safety 
is  the  result,  for  a  wall  so  thin  has  little 
weight  and  is  easily  heaved  out  of  place. 

Some  walls  are  built  with  two  thick- 
nesses of  brick  and  an  air  space  between. 
(See  Fig.  14.)  The  two  shells  are  held 


42     Fences,  Walls  and  Hedges 

together  with  bonds  which  may  be  brick 
laid  the  long-ways  across  or  may  be  of 
metal,  special  metal  bonds  coming  for  this 
purpose.  Hollow  walls  on  account  of  the 
air  space  retain  heat  longer  than  solid 
walls  while  they  require  25  °fo  less  brick 
than  the  latter. 

If  we  find  that  a  wall,  for  its  length, 
height  and  position,  should  require  twelve 
inches  of  thickness,  it  would  not  always 


The  commonest  methods  of  bricklaying  and  fin- 
ishing the  mortar  joints.  At  the  left  is  a  sec- 
tion of  a  properly  built  hollow  wall 

be  necessary  to  make  the  entire  length  so 
deep.  By  putting  in  piers  at  say  eight  or 
ten  foot  intervals  and  making  them  sixteen 
inches  or  more  square,  the  wall  could  be 
reduced  to  eight  inches.  These  piers 
stiffen  the  wall,  act  as  buttresses  and  help 
give  lateral  strength.  If  the  piers  are  of 
great  height,  ten  feet  or  over,  a  bond  stone, 
which  is  a  stone  four  or  more  inches  thick 
running  through  the  entire  pier,  helps  tie 


A  straightforward  brick  wall.  Some  of  the 
joints  are  raked  and  some  are  flush.  The 
top  course  of  brick  is  laid  with  headers  on 
end  and  covered  with  cement. 


Walls  43 

the  whole  together,  this  bond  stone  may 
be  placed  as  near  the  center  of  the  pier  as 
the  design  will  permit. 

The  top  of  a  brick  wall  is  capped  with 
stone,  terra-cotta,  cement  or  brick  set  on 
edge.  The  stone  and  terra-cotta  coping 
are  more  lasting.  The  old  expedient  to 
exclude  trespassers,  of  imbedding  broken 
glass  and  bottles  in  cement,  is  still  occa- 
sionally seen. 

Like  stone  the  brick  should  be  set  in 
Portland  cement  mortar  and  the  same  di- 
rections for  color  apply  as  above.  The 
joints  can  be  flush  or  raked  out. 

The  method  of  placing  the  bricks  in  the 
wall  is  called  the  bonding.  The  usual 
forms  are  common  or  American  bond,  Eng- 
lish bond  and  Flemish  bond.  (See  Fig 
14.)  The  illustrations  show  the  varieties 
and  also  that  through  bricks  at  intervals 
are  necessary  to  the  strength.  The  com- 
mon bond  takes  less  brick  than  the  other 
two  as  only  every  sixth  or  seventh  course 
is  laid  headers.  The  headers  are  the  ends 
of  the  bricks  exposed  while  the  stretchers 
are  bricks  laid  the  long  or  natural  way. 

Wonderful  decorative  effects  are  pro- 


44 

duced  by  the  bonding  and  by  various 
methods  of  placing  the  bricks  in  the  wall. 
Bricks  placed  on  edge,  flatwise,  laid  her- 
ring bone  and  with  continuous  joints  are 
some  of  the  ways  to  procure  these  effects. 

WALLS    OP    TWO    OE    MORE    MATERIALS 

When  we  come  to  consider  walls  of  two 
or  more  materials  we  have  a  wealth  of  de- 
signs and  combinations.  There  are  stone 
and  brick,  stone  and  wood,  iron  and  stone 
or  iron  and  brick.  Where  wood  or  iron 
is  used  with  brick  or  stone,  the  former  are 
employed  usually  as  fillers  in  between  brick 
or  stone  pieces  and  these  would  be  spaced 
the  same  distances  apart  as  the  posts  in 
wood  or  iron  fences.  A  fence  of  wood 
running  between  stone  or  brick  piers  of- 
fers a  style  that  combines  the  appearance 
of  masonry  with  the  comparative  cheap- 
ness of  a  wood  fence.  And  what  charm- 
ing designs  are  possible  with  this  union ! 
The  white  of  the  painted  wood  and  the 
gray  of  the  stone  make  a  color  scheme 
that  goes  gloriously  with  flowers  or  lawn, 
reflects  itself  in  a  pool  or  stands  out  grace- 


Walls  45 

fully  from  a  background  of  shrubbery  or 
evergreens  and  fits  into  an  old  fashioned 
garden  like  the  hole  in  the  doughnut,  which, 
you  will  admit  is  a  perfect  fit. 

Brick  and  iron  go  particularly  well  to- 
gether. Not  only  is  this  true  as  regards 
color  but  they  seem  to  have  a  certain  af- 
finity of  texture  which  is  harmonious  and 
satisfying. 

In  all  designs  architectural,  and  walls 
of  masonry  are  to  be  considered  as  archi- 
tecture, whether  part  of  a  building  or 
free-standing,  there  is  a  factor  that  is 
highly  important  to  the  success  of  the  de- 
sign. It  is  the  subtle  relation  of  surface 
to  surface,  texture  to  texture.  This  re- 
lation is  quite  independent  of  form  and 
also  of  color  in  as  far  as  color  does  not 
affect  texture. 

Let  us  keep  this  in  mind  in  combining 
our  materials  for  our  walls  and  fences. 
If  stone  and  wood  are  to  be  used,  we  shall 
not  have  our  stone  piers,  with  rough  un- 
dressed faces,  rugged  and  bold,  keeping 
guard  over  a  slender,  delicate  and  formal 
screen  work  of  wood  between.  Rather 
should  we  have  stout  palings,  that  are  per- 


46     Fences,  Walls  and  Hedges 

chance  allowed  to  weather  or  at  the  most 
receiving  a  stain  more  as  a  preservative 
than  as  a  finishing  surface.  But  as  we 
smooth  down  our  piers ;  set  the  stones  more 
regularly,  our  wood  becomes  more  formal 
and  perhaps  playful  and  the  surfaces 
smoother  and  the  angles  sharply  cut. 

In  the  most  trivial  of  building  opera- 
tions as  in  the  mightiest,  the  foundations 
are  the  first  and  one  of  the  most  impor- 
tant considerations. 

Very  few  walls  are  heavy  enough  of 
themselves  to  cause  the  earth  beneath  to 
give  way  or  to  be  pushed  out  of  place. 
Even  the  poorest  soils  will  bear  from  three- 
quarters  to  a  ton  of  superimposed  weight 
to  the  square  foot.  By  this  is  meant  nat- 
ural soils,  for  of  course,  some  kinds  of 
made  land  have  little  or  no  bearing  power, 
also  quick-sands.  If  your  wall  is  to  be 
so  heavy  that  you  fear  for  its  stabil- 
ity in  consequence  of  poor  ground,  then 
by  all  means  call  in  an  expert  and  take  no 
chances.  While  the  wall  may  be  in  little 
danger  of  settling  from  its  own  weight  yet 
such  conditions  might  arise  whereby  the 


Walls 


47 


earth  beneath  is  taken  away,  as  by  water, 
and  the  wall  just  "  naturally "  drops. 
An  open  tile  pipe  beneath  the  wall,  if  given 
a  pitch,  helps  to  carry  away  moisture. 
But  this  pipe  must  be  able  to  lead  some- 
where away  from  the  wall  and  empty  or 
else  it  will  become  merely  a  cistern  and 


The  solid  retaining  wall  needs  a  drain  at  the  bot- 
tom. Here  are  two  satisfactory  methods  of 
laying  drain  tiles 

hold  the  water  instead  of  discharging  it. 
If  the  wall  is  a  retaining  wall  it  is  doubly 
important  that  no  water  collects  near 
the  bottom.  The  illustration  shows  the 
method  for  draining  this  type  of  wall. 
(See  Fig.  15.) 


48     Fences,  Walls  and  Hedges 

In  place  of  the  pipe  a  course  of  dry 
stones,  which  allow  water  to  percolate 
through  them,  may  be  substituted.  The 
bottom  of  all  permanent  masonry  walls 
should  extend  below  the  frost  line,  which 
will  be  from  three  to  four  feet  below  grade, 
the  farther  north  we  are  the  deeper  we 
go,  but  four  feet  will  be  the  maximum. 

To  join  wood  and  stone  it  is  well  to 
have  as  little  wood  as  possible  imbedded  in 
the  stone  work  on  account  of  liability  to 
rot.  This  is  more  true  of  vertical  pieces 
of  wood  than  horizontal  ones,  as  they  col- 
lect water  at  the  joints  more  readily. 
Iron  dowels  and  anchors  are  safe  and 
strong  means  of  fastening.  If  iron  is  used 
with  stone  it  may  be  built  into  the  stone 
work  or  a  hole  drilled,  the  iron  inserted 
and  the  hole  plugged  with  molten  lead. 
With  brick  it  is  better  to  build  in  the  iron. 
If  balusters  are  brought  down  on  stone  or 
concrete  they  are  more  lasting  if  held  a 
small  fraction  of  an  inch  above  the  stone 
by  an  iron  dowel,  for  the  water  cannot 
then  collect  around  the  base  and  rot  the 
wood. 


Walls  49 


CONCRETE 

Concrete  combines  well  with  stone,  brick, 
wood  or  iron.  Its  simplest  use  is  for  the 
posts  of  a  wood  or  iron  fence;  we  have 
already  spoken  of  the  wire  fence  with  con- 
crete. To  elaborate,  the  spaces  between 
the  posts  may  be  filled  in  with  a  solid  con- 
crete wall  and  furthermore  brick  and  stone 
may  be  employed  with  the  concrete  for 
this  purpose. 

One  advantage  of  concrete  is  that  the 
average  person  may  in  a  short  time  learn 
to  mix  and  set  it.  But  don't  persuade 
yourself  that  concrete  is  an  easy  material 
to  handle.  In  the  first  place  it  is  heavy, 
weighing  some  135  pounds  per  cubic  foot; 
it  must  be  mixed  thoroughly,  which  takes 
hard  manual  labor,  and  besides  it  dirties 
up,  while  wet,  everything  with  which  it 
comes  in  contact.  It  would  be  wise  be- 
fore starting  work  to  procure  a  good  hand 
book  on  concrete  which  gives  careful  di- 
rections as  to  mixing,  etc.  As  direc- 
tions  have  been  given  in  so  many  articles 
and  books  concerning  the  methods  of  con- 


$o     Fences,  Walls  and  Hedges 

crete  making,  it  is  not  necessary  to  repeat 
them  here. 

To  vary  the  color  and  texture,  employ 
different  kinds  of  sand  and  cement.  A 
white  Portland  cement  with  white  sand 
gives  a  very  light  wall,  almost  white,  but 
the  difficulty  is  that  white  sand  which  is 
usually  from  the  beach  is  not  sharp  and 
consequently  not  as  strong.  Yellow  sand 
with  gray  cement  make  a  brown  or  brown- 
ish gray  wall  and  gray  sand  and  gray 
cement  give  a  decided  gray  when  set.  As 
wood  forms  are  used  to  hold  the  concrete 
until  hard,  the  surface  and  joints  of  the 
boards  are  left  imprinted  upon  the  surface 
of  the  concrete.  To  avoid  this,  take  down 
the  forms  before  the  set  is  too  hard  and 
scrape  with  a  stiff  wire  brush.  Pebbles 
mixed  in  with  sand  and  cement  show  an 
interesting  surface  texture  after  scrap- 
ing. 

While  concrete  has  great  crushing 
strength  and  is  able  to  resist  great  weights 
placed  upon  it,  in  comparison  it  has  little 
tensile  strength.  It  is  well  therefore  to 
provide  this  tensile  strength  by  some  other 
material.  Steel  rods  are  usually  employed 


Walls  $  I 

for  this.  They  are  placed  where  the  ten- 
sile stress  occurs.  If  a  load  is  applied 
to  a  concrete  beam,  the  tendency  to  bend 
causes  the  molecules  in  the  upper  part  of 
the  beam  to  be  compressed  and  those  in 
the  lower  part  to  be  pulled  asunder.  The 
steel  rod  or  rods  placed  below  the  center, 
by  their  great  tensile  qualities,  supply  the 
needed  strength.  Posts  should  have  two 
rods,  placed  vertically  in  diagonal  corners 
and  walls  can  have  either  rods  placed  ver- 
tically or  a  steel  mesh  running  lengthwise 
with  the  wall.  If  a  wall  is  thick  and  not 
high  in  proportion  to  its  width  this  re- 
enforcing  is  not  necessary.  Expansion 
joints  should  be  left  in  all  continuous  walls 
and  precise  information  about  these  is  ob- 
tained from  the  hand  books. 

COST 

It  is  difficult  to  lay  down  definite  figures 
for  the  cost  of  building  walls  and  fences. 
Material  and  labor  vary  from  year  to  year 
and  from  place  to  place.  Therefore  what 
follows  should  be  regarded  as  only  approx- 
imate although  every  precaution  has  been 
taken  to  be  accurate. 


52     Fences,  Walls  and  Hedges 

Starting  with  fences,  the  simple  forms 
of  picket  fences  cost  in  the  section  of 
New  York  about  $2.00  to  $5.00  per 
running  yard.  New  England  and  the 
South  could  build  them  cheaper,  say  for 
75  cents  up  per  yard,  due  in  the  former 
section  to  cheaper  labor  and  in  some  parts 
cheaper  material,  and  in  the  latter  section 
(the  South)  to  both  cheaper  labor  and 
material.  The  West  in  general  is  cheaper 
than  New  York,  especially  in  the  lumber 
regions.  These  figures  are  for  fences  of 
considerable  length  and  not  for  short  runs. 

As  the  fence  becomes  more  complicated 
in  design  the  labor  cost  increases  in  a 
greater  ratio  than  the  material  cost  and 
the  only  exact  way  to  determine  these  is 
to  get  an  estimate  from  a  carpenter.  It 
would  be  necessary  to  have  drawings  of 
the  fence  to  get  accurate  figures. 

For  wire  and  iron  fences  the  safest  way 
is  to  go  directly  to  the  manufacturers  for 
their  figures.  Their  catalogues  give  prices 
and  other  information. 

A  fence  3  feet  high  of  three  wires  strung 
between  locust  or*  chestnut  posts  costs 
from  90  cents  to  $1.00  per  running  yard. 


Walls  53 

A  fence  five  feet  high  cost  $1.15  per  run- 
ning yard.  If  you  have  the  posts  grow- 
ing, then  outside  of  buying  the  wire  and 
the  staples  the  cost  consists  of  cutting  and 
setting.  A  man  can  drive  90  posts  in  a 
day  under  ordinary  conditions  and  he  can 
dig  30  holes.  A  man  can  drive  from  25 
to  200  iron  posts  in  a  day,  depending  on 
the  soil. 

In  rough  masonry  work  we  figure  by  the 
perch  of  16^/2  cubic  feet.  For  a  rough 
dry  wall  a  good  average  would  be  $4.00 
the  perch  while  for  one  laid  up  at  random 
in  cement  mortar  a  perch  would  be  worth 
about  $5.00.  Copings  4  x  21  inches  if 
rock  face  edges  and  tops,  cost  from  $  .50 
per  lineal  foot  up;  if  clean  cut  $1.00  or 
more.  These  figures  are  for  stone  at  hand, 
if  carting  is  necessary  the  price  goes  up 
in  proportion  to  the  distance  hauled. 
Walls  of  common  brick  handburned  with 
ordinary  bonds  cost  from  $12.00  to  $15.00 
per  thousand  bricks.  There  are  15  bricks 
to  a  square  foot  of  8-inch  wall,  221/2 
bricks  to  a  square  foot  of  12-inch  wall, 
30  bricks  to  a  square  foot  of  16-inch  wall, 
and  ll/2  bricks  for  each  additional  thick- 


54     Fences,  Walls  and  Hedges 

ness  of  wall.  Face  brick  such  as  washed, 
wire  cut  and  tapestry  brick  bring  the  price 
up  50  per  cent,  or  more.  Cut  stone  walls 
can  only  be  fixed  by  estimates  when  draw- 
ings and  specifications  are  supplied.  Con- 
crete mixed  by  hand  in  most  sections  runs 
from  $6.00  to  $10.00  per  cubic  yard. 
Remember  in  figuring  the  cubical  contents 
of  a  wall  to  include  what  is  below  grade 
as  well  as  what  is  above. 


Ill 

HEDGES 

HEDGES  are  capable  of  fitting  any 
scheme  of  planning  and  combine 
with  the  beautiful  some  of  the  most  ex- 
cellent of  practical  features.  These  "  live 
fences  "  with  the  colors  of  nature  have  a 
limitless  range  of  shapes  and  sizes. 

If  dense,  the  hedge  not  only  obstructs 
the  vision  of  the  outsider  but  acts  as  a 
windbreak.  If  less  thick  it  still  screens, 
but  at  the  same  time  allows  a  certain 
amount  of  air  to  pass  through.  With  the 
average  wall  or  fence,  once  in  place,  a 
change  is  not  easy.  Not  so  with  the 
hedge.  It  may  be  varied  from  year  to 
year,  now  thick,  now  thin,  now  high,  now 
low,  until  just  the  right  shape  and  density 
are  acquired.  It  improves  with  time. 

With  hedges  you  have  wonderful  back- 
grounds for  garden  accessories,  long  lines 

of  bright  color  if  needed  or  screens  to  ob- 
55 


56     Fences,  Walls  and  Hedges 

jectionable  features.  They  may  be  links 
between  the  formal  and  the  purely  natural 
and  mark  a  dividing  line  with  softness  but 
decision. 

Yet  even  such  a  glorious  creature  as  a 
hedge  has  same  disadvantages.  It  just 
welcomes  all  sorts  of  woody  and  creepy 
vines,  among  which  the  poison-ivy  is  a 
leader.  The  only  successful  way  out,  is 
to  remove  these  intruders  by  hand  when 
they  are  small,  or  otherwise  the  task  will 
become  a  titanic  one.  Then  there  are  the 
insects,  but  these  can  be  treated  with  the 
same  methods  and  amount  of  work  as  for 
shrubs  and  trees.  Cultivation  is  often 
necessary  and  makes  another  act  of  labor 
with  pruning  and  spraying.  Yes,  a  hedge 
must  have  care  while  a  brick  or  stone  wall 
once  in  place  needs  little  further  attention. 

Do  not  get  the  idea  that  hedge  growing 
is  a  life  long  affair.  It  is  true  that  box 
and  a  few  other  varieties  are  very  slow 
growing  but  privet  and  laurel  makes  in  two 
or  three  years  a  very  respectable  appear- 
ance and  the  majority  of  others  very  little 
longer. 


Hedges  57 


PLANTING 

General  Directions.  Before  planting  is 
started  the  soil  must  be  properly  prepared. 
First  thoroughly  plow  a  width  of  six  feet 
and  the  length  of  the  hedge  and  then  cul- 
tivate. Better  results  are  certain  when 
fertilizers  are  used  and  the  area  cropped 
the  year  previous,  especially  if  the  soil  is 
poor  or  impoverished.  A  trench  or  fur- 
row is  run  through  the  center  of  the  cul- 
tivated strip  deep  enough  to  take  the 
roots  without  bending,  and  after  setting 
growth  is  hastened  by  making  the  soil  firm 
with  a  rammer. 

The  young  plants  must  be  shortened 
both  top  and  root  before  planting  and 
must  not  be  too  old  or  large.  It  is  true 
that  in  transplanting  hedge  plants  as  well 
as  fruit  trees  the  shock  of  transplanting 
retards  the  growth  when  too  far  developed 
so  that  a  younger  plant,  which  has  not 
gone  far  enough  to  be  shocked,  will  over- 
take and  pass  its  older  rival  in  a  few  years. 
Two  or  three  years  old  is  about  the  right 
age.  A  young  hedge  often  has  a  wire 
fence  down  the  center  as  a  reenforcing  un- 


58     Fences,  Walls  and  Hedges 

til  it  is  strong  enough  to  stand  by  itself 
in  the  world. 

A  good  general  rule  for  the  spacing  of 
the  new  plants  is  to  have  the  distance  be- 
tween two-thirds  the  height  of  the  plants. 
If  you  wish  to  have  eventually  a  high 
hedge,  plant  farther  apart  than  for  a  low 
hedge.  To  help  increase  the  height  from 
the  beginning  plant  on  a  low  raised  bank 
whose  flat  top  should  be  at  least  two  feet 
wide.  Let  this  bank  have  turf. 

Plant  in  single  lines  for  formal  effects 
and  in  double  lines,  the  plants  alternating, 
for  protection  and  shelter. 

Where  a  hedge  is  used  as  a  background 
for  flowers  a  distance  of  two  feet  may  well 
be  kept  between  the  hedge  and  the  flowers 
as  the  roots  of  the  former  would  rob  the 
latter  of  much  of  their  nourishment. 

PEUNING 

All  deciduous  growths  may  be  pruned 
at  any  time  in  the  south,  while  in  the  north 
mild  weather  in  February  and  March  is 
selected  by  many  gardeners  for  this  work. 

The  plants  develop  buds  along  the 
branches  and  when  part  of  a  branch  is  cut 


rrrrrr 


Hedges  59 

away  the  future  growth  is  concentrated  in 
the  remaining  buds  which  improves  the 
shape  and  the  health  of  the  plant.  But 
good  judgment  is  essential  for  this  prun- 
ing. Different  plants  require  different 
cuttings  and  the  final  shape  desired  has 
much  to  do  with  where  the  cuts  are  to  be 
made.  To  secure  a  bushy  effect,  cut  back 
the  ends  of  branches.  To  get  long  ver- 
tical branches  cut  away  those  branches 
which  are  not  vertical  or  which  interfere 
with  those  that  are.  As  a  rule  make  the 
cut  just  above  and  quite  close  to,  a  bud. 
This  will  leave  little  wood  projecting  be- 
yond after  the  bud  has  started  growing. 
Generally  flowering  hedges  look  best  with 
rounded  outlines.  Do  not  be  afraid  to 
prune  enough ;  most  beginners  are.  Shrub 
hedges  require  pruning  while  evergreen 
hedges  are  generally  clipped  with  shears. 

Remember  that  flowering  shrubs  pro- 
duce their  flowers  in  two  ways  —  one  class 
from  buds  formed  the  previous  season  and 
another  class  from  buds  appearing  on  the 
wood  the  same  season  with  the  flowers. 
Some  of  the  first  class  are  lilacs,  honey- 
suckles, privets,  dogwood,  Japan,  quince, 


60     Fences,  Walls  and  Hedges 

azaleas,  mock  oranges  and  dwarf  horse- 
chestnuts.  If  these  are  pruned  in  the 
early  spring  all  buds  cut  away  are  flowers 
lost.  The  best  way  is  to  prune  severely 
every  three  or  four  years  and  regulate 
yearly  as  much  as  possible  by  late  spring 
cutting.  With  the  second  class  pruning 
may  be  as  close  as  you  wish  in  the  early 
spring  or  late  winter  for  many  varieties 
will  flower  all  the  better  if  closely  cut  back. 

Honey  locust  and  osage  orange  may  be 
allowed  to  grow  until  they  are  an  inch 
through  near  the  ground  and  then  cutting 
them  back  almost  to  the  ground.  A 
strong  new  growth  is  the  result  and  after- 
wards they  may  be  trimmed  yearly  as  for 
other  hedges. 

Evergreens  are  best  pruned  in  April. 
By  being  clipped  each  year  they  become 
very  dense  which  is  especially  desirable  for 
the  Norway  spruce  as  it  becomes  very 
open  if  allowed  to  grow.  Most  pines  are 
not  happy  when  pruned,  the  white  pine 
being  more  tractable  than  the  others;  al- 
though if  their  natural  forms  of  growth 
are  carefully  considered  much  can  be  done 
with  them. 


Hedges  6  1 

Cut  back  to  some  strong  bud  and  as  a 
rule  do  not  go  back  further  than  last 
year's  growth.  Most  hedges  if  left  un- 
clipt  for  several  years  are  ruined  beyond 
remedy. 

VARIETIES 

We  usually  think  of  hedges  as  being 
evergreen,  box  or  privet,  but  in  truth  the 
majority  of  hardy  shrubs  and  some  trees 
make  excellent  hedges. 

We  shall  divide  the  varieties  into  Decid- 
uous and  Evergreen.  Following  is  a  list 
of  the  better  known  flowering  deciduous 
kinds  :  — 

Japanese  Barberry  (Berberis  Thunber- 


Holly-leafed  Barberry  (Berberis  aqui- 
folium). 

Cockspur  Thorn  (Crata^gus  Crus-galli). 

Rose  of  Sharon,  variety  of  (Hibiscus 
Syriacus,  Carneaplena). 

Osage  Orange  (Maclura  aurantiaca). 

Honey  locust  (Gleditschia  Triacan- 
thos). 

European  Hawthorne  (Cratoegus  Oxy- 
acantha). 


62     Fences,  Walls  and  Hedges 

Buckthorn  (Rhamnus  Catharticus). 
Lilac  (Syringa  Vulgaris). 
Sweetbrier  Rose. 
Hydrangea  (Hydrangea  paniculata). 

EVERGREENS 

Norway  Spruce  (Picea  excelsa). 
American  arbor  vitae  (Thuja  occiden- 
talis). 

Common  Hemlock  (Tsuga  Canadensis). 
Junipers  (Juniperus  communis). 
Box. 

EVERGREEN  (Southern) 

Flex  cassine. 

Holly  as  far  north  as  New  Jersey. 
Privet  in  a  way  is  both  deciduous  and 
evergreen. 

SMALL  LAWN  HEDGES  (Northern) 

Honeysuckle. 

Lilac. 

Redbarked  dogwood. 

SOUTHERN 

Chinese  Privet;   cape  jasmine;   Japan 
evergreen;  roses. 


Hedges  63 

The  Japanese  Barberry  grows  four  feet 
high  in  a  great  variety  of  soils  and  will 
stand  the  shade.  It  is  hardy  everywhere 
with  many  twigs  and  thorns  and  if  dipt 
makes  a  dense  and  solid  wall.  It  has 
bright  scarlet  berries  which  last  through 
the  winter.  If  the  plants  are  sheared,  set 


The  various   forms  of  hedge  trimming  shown  in 
section  and  perspective 

them  18  inches  apart;  if  not,  24  to  30 
inches. 

The  Holly-leafed  Barberry  stands  to  a 
height  of  four  feet  and  like  the  above 
grows  in  any  soil.  Has  good  winter  color 
and  blossoms  in  May  with  yellow  flowers. 
Set  plants  as  for  above. 

The  Cockspur  Thorn  will  go  up  to 
twenty-five  feet  and  while  it  will  grow  in 
most  any  soil  prefers  a  rich  one.  Blos- 
soms in  May  and  June  with  clusters  of 
white  flowers  something  like  apple  bios- 


64     Fences,  Walls  and  Hedges 

soms.  Has  long,  sharp  thorns.  Set  plants 
24  to  30  inches  apart  and  prune  not  later 
than  August  first. 

Variety  of  Rose  of  Sharon.  Grows 
twelve  feet  high  in  any  soil.  The  bush  is 
covered  with  single  pink  flowers  in  August 
and  September.  Set  plants  18  to  24 
inches  apart  and  prune  after  flowering. 

Osage  Orange.  This  is  really  a  tree 
but  adapts  itself  wonderfully  to  a  hedge. 
Is  spreading  and  picturesque  with  hand- 
some orange-like  foliage.  Will  not  stand 
the  climate  of  our  extreme  northern  states. 

Honey  Locust.  Small  globe-headed  tree 
with  elegant  foliage.  With  proper  shear- 
ing makes  an  excellent  hedge. 

European  Hawthorn.  Not  recommend- 
ed for  United  States  as  it  has  many  fungus 
enemies  here.  The  varieties  are  arbutus- 
leaved,  apple-leaved,  pear-leaved,  glossy- 
leaved,  parsley-leaved  and  many  others. 
They  are  of  compact  growth  and  will 
stand  any  soil  and  situation.  The  flowers 
are  abundant  and  plentiful. 

Buckthorn  has  small  dark  leaves  and  in- 
conspicuous greenish  white  flowers.  Makes 
a  good  hedge. 


Hedges  65 

Lilac.  Flowers  purple  and  white. 
There  are  several  varieties  having  differ- 
ent colors  in  the  flowers  and  leaves.  Some 
varieties  assume  a  tree  like  form. 

Hydrangea.  It  is  hardy  throughout 
the  country  and  very  vigorous  in  growth. 
The  flowering  is  extremely  gorgeous  with 
large  pyramidal  panicles  of  white  flowers 
that  change  to  pink  and  last  well  into  the 
winter.  The  plant  enjoys  a  deep  rich  soil 
and  moisture. 

Norway  Spruce.  This  tree  is  very 
hardy  and  of  free  growth.  It  is  well  to 
control  it  by  clipping  as  it  appears  coarse 
when  grown  too  high.  There  are  many 
valuable  varieties  that  vary  in  color  and 
all  make  fine  hedges.  Some  grow  into 
pyramidal  and  conical  forms  naturally  and 
there  are  dwarf  species. 

Arbor  Vita;  is  hardy  with  rapid  growth 
when  conditions  are  favorable.  Assumes 
conical  forms.  Varieties  range  from  som- 
ber colors  to  golden  and  silver-hueJ  ones. 
Fine  for  contrasts.  There  are  also  dwarfs 
of  this  family  valuable  for  edgings  or  low 
hedges. 

Junipers.     These  are  beautiful  and  re- 


66     Fences,  Walls  and  Hedges 

liable  hardy  evergreens  and  have  a  great 
range  of  adaptability,  size  and  form. 


A  stile  useful  for  crossing 
a  hedge.  May  be  folded 
up  and  removed. 


THE    EKD 


University  of  California 

SOUTHERN  REGIONAL  LIBRARY  FACILITY 

Return  this  material  to  the  library 

from  which  it  was  borrowed. 


QL  OCT02 1989 


•Obi   r^> 

QL        OCT-071^91 


A     000  057  685    o 


